The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
यूरोप में राष्ट्रवाद का उदय
1. Introduction
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a powerful force that brought sweeping changes in the political and mental landscape of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.
The concept that we take for granted today—that people sharing a common identity, language, and culture should have their own sovereign nation—was revolutionary in the 18th and 19th centuries. Before this period, most of Europe was divided into kingdoms, duchies, and empires ruled by monarchs who had little concern for the ethnic or cultural identities of their subjects.
Nationalism is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. It holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference.
Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision (1848)
In 1848, French artist Frédéric Sorrieu prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of "democratic and social republics." These prints became an iconic representation of the nationalist aspirations of the time.
In the first print of the series:
- People of Europe and America are shown marching in a long train
- They offer homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass
- The statue holds the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other
- On the ground lie the shattered remains of symbols of absolutist institutions
- People are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costumes
- Leading the procession are the United States and Switzerland, followed by France and Germany
Questions about Frédéric Sorrieu's prints and their symbolism are frequently asked in board exams. Remember the key elements: Statue of Liberty, torch of Enlightenment, Charter of Rights of Man, and the order of nations in the procession.
2. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism. It marked the beginning of the political and constitutional changes that led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarch to the body of French citizens.
Key Measures Taken During the French Revolution
The revolutionaries introduced several measures to create a sense of collective identity among the French people:
| Measure | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| La Patrie & Le Citoyen | Ideas of the fatherland and the citizen were introduced | Emphasized common belonging and equal rights |
| New French Flag | The tricolour (blue-white-red) replaced the royal standard | Symbol of national unity |
| Estates General → National Assembly | Elected body of citizens replaced the old assembly | Democratic representation |
| New Hymns & Oaths | New patriotic songs and oaths were composed | Promoted national pride |
| Martyrs Commemorated | Those who died fighting were remembered | Created national heroes |
| Centralized Administration | Uniform laws for all citizens within the territory | Administrative unity |
| French as National Language | French was promoted as the common language | Linguistic unity replacing regional dialects |
| Internal Customs Abolished | Internal customs duties and dues were removed | Economic integration |
| Uniform Weights & Measures | A uniform system of weights and measures adopted | Facilitated trade and commerce |
"The French Revolution was the first clear expression of nationalism. It transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the body of French citizens." — NCERT History Textbook
Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced policies that spread the idea of nationalism beyond France:
- French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and parts of Italy in the 1790s
- They carried the idea of nationalism abroad
- They proclaimed that it was the mission of France to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism
- They helped establish Jacobin clubs in foreign territories
When answering questions about the French Revolution's contribution to nationalism, always mention: (1) Transfer of sovereignty from monarch to citizens, (2) Creation of national symbols like the tricolour, (3) Uniform laws and administration, and (4) Spread of ideas through French armies.
3. Napoleon and the Napoleonic Code
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France. Although he destroyed democracy in France, his administrative measures are considered revolutionary and had a lasting impact on Europe.
The Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804)
The Civil Code of 1804, usually known as the Napoleonic Code, introduced several significant reforms:
| Reform | Impact |
|---|---|
| Abolition of privileges based on birth | End of aristocratic special rights |
| Equality before the law | All citizens treated equally by law |
| Right to property secured | Protected private property ownership |
| Abolished feudal system | Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues |
| Removed guild restrictions | Freedom for trade and industry |
| Improved transport and communication | Better infrastructure across territories |
| Standardized weights and measures | Facilitated commerce and trade |
| Common national currency | Economic integration |
Napoleon's Conquests and Their Impact
Napoleon's armies conquered and occupied many parts of Europe:
- Dutch Republic (Netherlands)
- Belgium
- Switzerland
- Large parts of Germany
- Italy
- Poland
- Spain
In these territories, Napoleon implemented the Napoleonic Code, which was seen as a liberation by many initially.
Negative Aspects of Napoleonic Rule
However, Napoleon's rule soon became oppressive in several ways:
- Increased taxation to fund wars
- Censorship of press and publications
- Forced conscription into the French army
- Loss of political freedom
Remember this important contrast for exams: While Napoleon's administrative reforms (Napoleonic Code) were progressive and welcomed, his political rule was oppressive. Initial enthusiasm for French rule gave way to hostility as people realized they had traded one form of domination for another.
"Napoleon undoubtedly destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient." — NCERT History Textbook
4. The Making of Nationalism in Europe
Europe Before Nationalism
Before the 19th century, there were no nation-states in Europe as we understand them today. The situation was characterized by:
- Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into numerous kingdoms, duchies, and cantons
- Each had its own autonomous rulers
- People within these regions often spoke different languages
- The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) ruled over diverse peoples including:
- Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks
- Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians
- Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Italians
The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
The Aristocracy
The aristocracy was the dominant class socially and politically:
- They owned estates in the countryside and townhouses
- They were numerically small but powerful
- They were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions
- They spoke French for diplomacy and high society
- Their families were connected by ties of marriage
The Peasantry
The peasants formed the majority of the population:
- They worked on the aristocratic estates
- In Western and Central Europe, they were tenants and small owners
- In Eastern and Central Europe, they were serfs tied to the land
The New Middle Class
The new middle class emerged with industrialization and commercial expansion:
- Included industrialists, businessmen, and professionals
- Consisted of educated and liberal individuals
- They believed in freedom of markets and abolition of restrictions on trade
- They championed nationalist ideas
- This class became the driving force behind nationalism
The new middle class—comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals—was the social group that most actively promoted nationalist ideas. Their liberal beliefs in freedom and equality aligned well with the concept of nation-states based on popular sovereignty.
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand For?
Liberalism derived from the Latin word 'liber' meaning free. In the political sphere, it emphasized:
| Aspect | Liberal Position |
|---|---|
| Government | Constitutional government with representative democracy |
| Individual Rights | Freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion |
| Law | Equality before the law for all citizens |
| Autocracy | End of absolute monarchy and hereditary privileges |
| Economy | Freedom of markets and abolition of trade restrictions |
Economic Liberalism and the Zollverein
In 1834, Prussia formed a customs union called the Zollverein, joined by most German states:
- Abolished tariff barriers between member states
- Reduced the number of currencies from over 30 to two
- Created a single market for German goods
- Stimulated economic nationalism
- Paved the way for political unification
Zollverein is a frequently asked topic. Remember: It was a customs union formed in 1834 under Prussian leadership that unified German states economically before their political unification in 1871. It reduced currencies from 30+ to 2 and abolished internal tariffs.
Limitations of Liberal Nationalism
Liberal nationalism had significant limitations:
- Voting rights were limited to property-owning men
- Women and non-propertied men were excluded from political participation
- Women had to organize separate political associations and newspapers
- They founded their own suffrage movements demanding equal political rights
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