RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 1 Reproduction in Organisms Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 1 Reproduction in Organisms Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter theory + diagrams आधारित है और board exams में short notes, definitions एवं labelled diagrams से जुड़े प्रश्न पूछे जाते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Reproduction वह जैविक प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा जीव अपने समान नए जीव उत्पन्न करते हैं। यह species की continuity बनाए रखने के लिए आवश्यक है।

🔹 Types of Reproduction

Type	Definition	Examples
Asexual Reproduction	एक ही parent से offspring का निर्माण	Amoeba, Hydra
Sexual Reproduction	दो parents की भागीदारी से reproduction	Humans, Plants

🔹 Asexual Reproduction – Types

• Binary fission
• Multiple fission
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative propagation

🔹 Sexual Reproduction – Key Features

• Formation of male and female gametes
• Fertilisation
• Development of zygote
• Genetic variation

🔹 Reproductive Phases

• Juvenile phase
• Reproductive phase
• Senescent phase

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Reproduction: Process of producing offspring.
• Asexual reproduction: Reproduction involving single parent.
• Sexual reproduction: Reproduction involving fusion of gametes.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Definitions NCERT language में लिखें
• Diagrams neat और labelled बनाएं
• Difference questions table में करें
• Keywords underline करें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और diagram-based theory questions एवं board exam preparation के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Reproduction in Organisms Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter diagrams + processes आधारित है और board exams में labelled diagrams, short notes एवं flow-based questions से सीधे प्रश्न आते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Flowering plants (angiosperms) में sexual reproduction flowers के माध्यम से होता है। इस chapter में flower की संरचना, pollination, fertilisation तथा seed और fruit formation का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Structure of a Flower

Whorl	Part	Function
Calyx	Sepals	Flower bud की protection
Corolla	Petals	Pollinators को attract करना
Androecium	Stamens	Male gametes का निर्माण
Gynoecium	Pistil/Carpel	Female gametes का निर्माण

🔹 Male Reproductive Part – Androecium

• Stamen = Filament + Anther
• Pollen grains develop in pollen sacs
• Pollen grain structure: exine, intine, male gametes

🔹 Female Reproductive Part – Gynoecium

• Pistil = Stigma + Style + Ovary
• Ovules present inside ovary
• Embryo sac contains egg, synergids, antipodals

🔹 Pollination

• Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
• Self-pollination
• Cross-pollination
• Agents: wind, water, insects

🔹 Fertilisation (Double Fertilisation)

• Fusion of male gamete with egg → Zygote
• Fusion of second male gamete with polar nuclei → Endosperm
• Unique feature of angiosperms

🔹 Post-Fertilisation Changes

• Ovule → Seed
• Ovary → Fruit
• Zygote → Embryo
• Primary endosperm nucleus → Endosperm

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
• Fertilisation: Fusion of male and female gametes.
• Double fertilisation: Two fusions occurring in angiosperms.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Diagrams neat और properly labelled बनाएं
• Double fertilisation step-wise लिखें
• Tables का use करें (2–5 marks)
• NCERT terminology का प्रयोग करें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और diagram-based questions एवं board exam preparation के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 3 Human Reproduction Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 3 Human Reproduction Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter human anatomy + processes पर आधारित है और board exams में labelled diagrams, short notes एवं sequence-based questions से नियमित रूप से पूछा जाता है।

---

🔹 Introduction

Human reproduction वह प्रक्रिया है जिसमें male और female gametes के fusion से नए मानव का विकास होता है। इस chapter में male एवं female reproductive systems, gametogenesis, fertilisation तथा embryonic development का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Male Reproductive System

Part	Function
Testes	Sperms और testosterone का निर्माण
Epididymis	Sperms का maturation
Vas deferens	Sperms का transport
Accessory glands	Seminal fluid का निर्माण

🔹 Female Reproductive System

Part	Function
Ovaries	Ova और hormones का निर्माण
Fallopian tubes	Fertilisation का स्थान
Uterus	Foetal development
Vagina	Birth canal

🔹 Gametogenesis

• Spermatogenesis: Formation of sperms in testes
• Oogenesis: Formation of ova in ovaries

🔹 Menstrual Cycle

• Menstrual phase
• Follicular phase
• Ovulation
• Luteal phase

🔹 Fertilisation & Implantation

• Fusion of sperm and ovum → Zygote
• Implantation in uterine wall
• Placenta formation

🔹 Pregnancy & Embryonic Development

• Gestation period ≈ 9 months
• Placenta functions: nutrition, respiration, excretion
• Hormonal regulation

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Gametogenesis: Formation of gametes.
• Fertilisation: Fusion of male and female gametes.
• Implantation: Attachment of embryo to uterine wall.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Human system diagrams neat और labelled बनाएं
• Processes step-wise लिखें
• Tables का प्रयोग करें (2–5 marks)
• NCERT terminology का उपयोग करें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और human reproduction आधारित diagram questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Human Reproduction Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 4 Reproductive Health Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 4 Reproductive Health Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter health education + social awareness पर आधारित है और board exams में short notes, tables एवं case-based questions से नियमित रूप से पूछा जाता है।

---

🔹 Introduction

Reproductive health का अर्थ है reproductive system की physical, mental एवं social well-being। यह chapter population control, contraception, STDs और reproductive health programmes पर केंद्रित है।

🔹 Need for Reproductive Health

• Healthy family planning
• Population control
• Prevention of STDs
• Awareness among adolescents

🔹 Population Explosion

• Rapid increase in population
• Causes: early marriage, illiteracy
• Effects: unemployment, poverty, lack of resources

🔹 Contraceptive Methods

Method	Examples	Function
Natural methods	Safe period, Lactational amenorrhea	Prevent fertilisation
Barrier methods	Condoms, Diaphragm	Prevent sperm entry
IUDs	Copper-T, Lippes loop	Prevent implantation
Oral pills	Hormonal pills	Inhibit ovulation
Surgical methods	Vasectomy, Tubectomy	Permanent contraception

🔹 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

• Gonorrhoea
• Syphilis
• HIV/AIDS
• Genital herpes

🔹 Symptoms & Prevention of STDs

• Symptoms: itching, discharge, sores
• Prevention: safe sex, awareness, early diagnosis

🔹 Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)

• Termination of unwanted pregnancy
• Safe during early stages
• Helps control population growth

🔹 Reproductive Health Programmes

• Family planning programmes
• Awareness campaigns
• Adolescent health education

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Reproductive health: Complete well-being of reproductive system.
• Contraception: Prevention of pregnancy.
• STD: Disease transmitted through sexual contact.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Tables का प्रयोग करें (methods vs functions)
• Advantages और prevention points लिखें
• NCERT terminology का उपयोग करें
• Short notes concise रखें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और reproductive health आधारित theory questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Reproductive Health Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 5 Principles of Inheritance & Variation Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 5 Principles of Inheritance & Variation Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter genetics पर आधारित है और board exams में numericals, tables, Punnett squares एवं pedigree से जुड़े प्रश्न नियमित रूप से पूछे जाते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Inheritance वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा traits parents से offspring में transfer होते हैं। Variation individuals के बीच differences को दर्शाता है। इस chapter में Mendel के प्रयोग, laws of inheritance और genetic disorders शामिल हैं।

🔹 Mendel’s Experiments

• Performed on garden pea (Pisum sativum)
• Studied contrasting characters
• Used controlled pollination

🔹 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

Law	Statement
Law of Dominance	Dominant trait expresses in F1 generation
Law of Segregation	Alleles separate during gamete formation
Law of Independent Assortment	Different traits assort independently

🔹 Monohybrid Cross

• Cross involving one character
• Phenotypic ratio: 3 : 1
• Genotypic ratio: 1 : 2 : 1

🔹 Dihybrid Cross

• Cross involving two characters
• Phenotypic ratio: 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
• Explains independent assortment

🔹 Incomplete Dominance & Codominance

• Incomplete dominance: intermediate phenotype
• Example: Snapdragon flower colour
• Codominance: both alleles express
• Example: ABO blood groups

🔹 Multiple Alleles

• More than two alleles for a gene
• Example: ABO blood group system

🔹 Sex Determination

• XX–XY type in humans
• Male determines sex of child

🔹 Genetic Disorders

Disorder	Type	Cause
Haemophilia	Sex-linked	Defective clotting gene
Colour blindness	Sex-linked	Defective visual pigment gene
Sickle cell anaemia	Autosomal	Point mutation

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Inheritance: Transfer of traits from parents to offspring.
• Allele: Alternative form of a gene.
• Genotype: Genetic makeup of an organism.
• Phenotype: Observable characters.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Punnett squares साफ़ और labelled बनाएं
• Ratios clearly mention करें
• Tables का उपयोग करें (laws, disorders)
• Pedigree questions step-wise हल करें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और genetics आधारित numericals एवं theory questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Principles of Inheritance & Variation Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 6 Molecular Basis of Inheritance Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 6 Molecular Basis of Inheritance Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter DNA, RNA, genetic code एवं gene expression पर आधारित है और board exams में flowcharts, diagrams एवं short notes से जुड़े प्रश्नों के लिए अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण है।

---

🔹 Introduction

Molecular basis of inheritance यह समझाता है कि genetic information DNA में कैसे stored, replicated और expressed होती है। इस chapter में DNA structure, replication, transcription, translation एवं genetic code शामिल हैं।

🔹 DNA as Genetic Material

• Griffith’s experiment
• Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
• Hershey–Chase experiment

🔹 Structure of DNA

• Double helix model (Watson & Crick)
• Antiparallel strands
• Complementary base pairing
• A–T (2 H bonds), G–C (3 H bonds)

🔹 DNA Replication

• Semi-conservative replication
• Role of enzymes: helicase, DNA polymerase, ligase
• Leading and lagging strands

🔹 Transcription

• DNA → RNA synthesis
• RNA polymerase enzyme
• Types of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

🔹 Genetic Code

Feature	Description
Triplet code	Three nucleotides code one amino acid
Degenerate	One amino acid coded by more than one codon
Universal	Same code in most organisms
Start codon	AUG
Stop codons	UAA, UAG, UGA

🔹 Translation

• mRNA → Protein synthesis
• Occurs on ribosomes
• tRNA carries amino acids

🔹 Regulation of Gene Expression

• Lac operon in E. coli
• Inducible operon
• Role of repressor and operator

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Replication: Copying of DNA.
• Transcription: Synthesis of RNA from DNA.
• Translation: Protein synthesis from mRNA.
• Genetic code: Set of codons coding amino acids.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Flowcharts में steps क्रम से लिखें
• Diagrams neat और labelled बनाएं
• Genetic code features याद रखें
• Lac operon short note common है

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और molecular biology आधारित theory एवं diagram questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Molecular Basis of Inheritance Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 7 Evolution Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 7 Evolution Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter conceptual + comparative है और board exams में definitions, short notes, tables एवं diagrams से जुड़े प्रश्न नियमित रूप से पूछे जाते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Evolution वह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा जीवों में पीढ़ी दर पीढ़ी परिवर्तन होते हैं, जिससे नई प्रजातियों का निर्माण होता है। यह chapter life की उत्पत्ति, evolutionary theories और evidences पर आधारित है।

🔹 Origin of Life

• Abiogenesis (spontaneous generation) – rejected
• Biogenesis – life from pre-existing life
• Oparin–Haldane theory (chemical evolution)
• Miller–Urey experiment

🔹 Theories of Evolution

Theory	Scientist	Main Idea
Lamarckism	Jean Lamarck	Inheritance of acquired characters
Darwinism	Charles Darwin	Natural selection
Neo-Darwinism	Modern synthesis	Mutation + recombination + selection

🔹 Lamarckism

• Use and disuse of organs
• Inheritance of acquired traits
• Example: Long neck of giraffe (rejected)

🔹 Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

• Overproduction of offspring
• Struggle for existence
• Variation among individuals
• Survival of the fittest
• Origin of species

🔹 Evidences of Evolution

• Homologous organs
• Analogous organs
• Vestigial organs
• Fossil records
• Embryological evidences

🔹 Homologous vs Analogous Organs

Homologous Organs	Analogous Organs
Same origin	Different origin
Different functions	Same function
Example: Forelimbs of vertebrates	Example: Wings of bird & insect

🔹 Adaptive Radiation

• Divergence of species from common ancestor
• Example: Darwin’s finches

🔹 Hardy–Weinberg Principle

• Allele frequencies remain constant in a population
• Conditions: no mutation, random mating, no migration
• Equation: p² + 2pq + q² = 1

🔹 Human Evolution (Brief)

• Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus
• Australopithecus
• Homo habilis
• Homo erectus
• Homo sapiens

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Evolution: Gradual change in organisms over generations.
• Natural selection: Survival and reproduction of best-adapted organisms.
• Homologous organs: Organs with same origin but different functions.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Comparison questions tables में करें
• Natural selection steps क्रम में लिखें
• Examples ज़रूर दें
• Hardy–Weinberg equation याद रखें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और evolution आधारित theory एवं diagram questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Evolution Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 8 Human Health & Disease Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 8 Human Health & Disease Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter diseases, immunity एवं prevention पर आधारित है और board exams में tables, short notes एवं case-based questions से सीधे प्रश्न आते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Health का अर्थ केवल disease की अनुपस्थिति नहीं, बल्कि physical, mental एवं social well-being है। इस chapter में common diseases, pathogens, immunity तथा prevention methods का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Common Infectious Diseases

Disease	Pathogen	Mode of Transmission
Malaria	Plasmodium	Mosquito bite
Typhoid	Salmonella typhi	Contaminated food & water
Pneumonia	Streptococcus	Air droplets
Common cold	Rhinovirus	Air / contact

🔹 Non-Infectious Diseases

• Cancer
• Diabetes
• Hypertension
• Allergies

🔹 Cancer

• Uncontrolled cell division
• Causes: carcinogens, radiation, genetic factors
• Types: benign and malignant tumors
• Treatment: surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy

🔹 Drugs & Alcohol Abuse

• Addiction affects nervous system
• Common drugs: opioids, cannabinoids, cocaine
• Effects: depression, liver damage, social problems

🔹 Immunity

• Ability of body to resist diseases
• Provided by immune system

🔸 Types of Immunity

Type	Description	Example
Innate immunity	Inborn, non-specific	Skin, mucous membranes
Acquired immunity	Develops after infection/vaccination	Antibodies

🔸 Active & Passive Immunity

• Active immunity: Body produces antibodies
• Passive immunity: Antibodies given externally

🔹 Vaccination

• Introduces antigen to body
• Stimulates immune response
• Provides long-term protection

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Health: Complete physical, mental and social well-being.
• Immunity: Ability of body to resist infection.
• Vaccine: Preparation that provides immunity.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Disease–pathogen tables लिखें
• Immunity types clearly differentiate करें
• Flowcharts का प्रयोग करें
• Prevention points highlight करें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और human health एवं disease आधारित theory questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Human Health & Disease Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 9 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 9 Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter agriculture, animal husbandry एवं biotechnology-based practices पर आधारित है और board exams में tables, flowcharts एवं short notes से जुड़े प्रश्नों के लिए अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण है।

---

🔹 Introduction

Food production बढ़ाने के लिए plant breeding, animal husbandry और modern agricultural practices का उपयोग किया जाता है। इस chapter में crop improvement, breeding techniques, dairy, poultry और fisheries का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Plant Breeding

• Development of high-yielding varieties (HYV)
• Disease-resistant crops
• Drought and salt resistant varieties
• Improvement of quality traits

🔹 Types of Crops Improved

Crop	Improved Variety	Feature
Wheat	High-yielding varieties	Disease resistance
Rice	IR varieties	High productivity
Maize	Hybrid maize	Better yield

🔹 Animal Husbandry

• Scientific management of livestock
• Improvement of breeds
• Proper feeding and disease control

🔹 Dairy Farm Management

• Selection of high-yielding breeds
• Balanced diet
• Clean housing conditions
• Regular vaccination

🔹 Poultry Farming

• Rearing of birds for eggs and meat
• Selection of healthy chicks
• Proper nutrition and disease control

🔹 Fisheries

• Fish as source of protein
• Inland fisheries
• Marine fisheries
• Aquaculture

🔹 Bee-Keeping (Apiculture)

• Production of honey and wax
• Important species: Apis indica
• Economic importance

🔹 Advantages of Modern Food Production

• Increased food availability
• Better nutritional quality
• Resistance to diseases
• Economic benefits to farmers

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Plant breeding: Improvement of crop plants.
• Animal husbandry: Scientific management of animals.
• Apiculture: Rearing of honey bees.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Steps और advantages points में लिखें
• Tables का प्रयोग करें
• Flowcharts से answers concise बनाएं
• Examples ज़रूर दें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और food production आधारित theory questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 10 Microbes in Human Welfare Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 10 Microbes in Human Welfare Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter microorganisms के उपयोग पर आधारित है और board exams में tables, flowcharts एवं short notes से जुड़े प्रश्नों के लिए अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण है।

---

🔹 Introduction

Microorganisms मानव जीवन में खाद्य पदार्थों, औषधियों, उद्योगों और पर्यावरण संरक्षण में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाते हैं। इस chapter में microbes के beneficial uses का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Microbes in Household Products

Product	Microbe	Use
Curd	Lactobacillus	Milk fermentation
Bread	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	Dough rising
Idli/Dosa	Lactic acid bacteria	Fermentation

🔹 Microbes in Industrial Products

Product	Microbe	Use
Alcohol	Yeast	Fermentation of sugars
Antibiotics	Penicillium	Production of penicillin
Citric acid	Aspergillus niger	Food industry

🔹 Microbes in Sewage Treatment

• Primary treatment (physical)
• Secondary treatment (biological)
• Activated sludge formation
• Reduction of BOD

🔹 Microbes in Biogas Production

• Methanogens (Methanobacterium)
• Biogas components: CH₄, CO₂, H₂
• Uses: fuel, manure

🔹 Microbes as Biocontrol Agents

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
• Trichoderma
• Biopesticides reduce chemical use

🔹 Microbes as Biofertilisers

• Rhizobium (nitrogen fixation)
• Azotobacter
• Mycorrhiza

🔹 Advantages of Using Microbes

• Eco-friendly processes
• Cost-effective
• Reduced pollution
• Sustainable agriculture

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Fermentation: Conversion of sugars into alcohol/acids by microbes.
• Biogas: Fuel gas produced by microbial activity.
• Biofertiliser: Microbes that enrich soil fertility.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Product–microbe tables लिखें
• Sewage treatment steps क्रम में लिखें
• Diagrams neat और labelled बनाएं
• Advantages points में लिखें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और microbes आधारित theory एवं application questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Microbes in Human Welfare Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 Biotechnology: Principles & Processes Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 Biotechnology: Principles & Processes Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter genetic engineering, rDNA technology एवं industrial biotechnology पर आधारित है और board exams में flowcharts, diagrams एवं short notes से सीधे प्रश्न आते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Biotechnology वह तकनीक है जिसमें living organisms या उनके components का उपयोग मानव कल्याण के लिए किया जाता है। इस chapter में recombinant DNA technology, enzymes, vectors एवं bioreactors का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Principles of Biotechnology

• Genetic engineering
• Maintenance of sterile conditions (bioprocess engineering)

🔹 Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology

Tool	Function
Restriction enzymes	Cut DNA at specific sites
Ligase	Join DNA fragments
Vectors	Transfer foreign DNA
Host organism	Multiply recombinant DNA

🔹 Restriction Enzymes

• Act as molecular scissors
• Recognise palindromic sequences
• Produce sticky or blunt ends

🔹 Cloning Vectors

• Plasmids
• Bacteriophages
• Cosmids
• Artificial chromosomes

🔹 Features of a Cloning Vector

• Origin of replication (ori)
• Selectable marker
• Cloning sites

🔹 Steps of Recombinant DNA Technology

🔹 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

• Amplification of DNA
• Steps: Denaturation, Annealing, Extension
• Uses: diagnosis, forensics, research

🔹 Bioreactors

• Large vessels for industrial production
• Provide optimum conditions for growth
• Types: simple stirred tank bioreactor

🔹 Downstream Processing

• Separation of product
• Purification
• Quality control
• Packaging

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Biotechnology: Use of organisms for human welfare.
• Restriction enzyme: Enzyme that cuts DNA.
• Vector: DNA molecule used to transfer genes.
• PCR: Technique to amplify DNA.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• rDNA steps flowchart में लिखें
• Tools और functions table में करें
• PCR steps क्रम में लिखें
• Diagrams neat और labelled बनाएं

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और biotechnology आधारित theory एवं diagram questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Biotechnology: Principles & Processes Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 12 Biotechnology & Its Applications Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 12 Biotechnology & Its Applications Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter medical, agricultural एवं industrial applications पर आधारित है और board exams में short notes, examples एवं tables से सीधे प्रश्न आते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Biotechnology के अनुप्रयोगों का उपयोग healthcare, agriculture, environment एवं industry में किया जाता है। इस chapter में genetically modified organisms, therapeutic proteins एवं ethical issues का अध्ययन किया जाता है।

🔹 Biotechnology in Medicine

• Production of insulin
• Vaccines
• Gene therapy
• Molecular diagnosis

🔸 Insulin Production

• Human insulin gene inserted into bacteria
• Produced by recombinant DNA technology
• Used in diabetes treatment

🔸 Gene Therapy

• Treatment of genetic disorders
• Functional gene replaces defective gene
• Example: ADA deficiency

🔹 Molecular Diagnosis

• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
• ELISA
• Early detection of diseases

🔹 Biotechnology in Agriculture

• Development of GM crops
• Resistance to pests and diseases
• Improved nutritional quality

🔸 Genetically Modified Crops

GM Crop	Trait	Benefit
Bt cotton	Insect resistance	Reduced pesticide use
Golden rice	Vitamin A enrichment	Prevents deficiency

🔹 Biotechnology in Environment

• Bioremediation
• Cleaning oil spills
• Waste treatment using microbes

🔹 Ethical & Social Issues

• Safety of GM organisms
• Bioethics
• Intellectual property rights
• Biopiracy

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• GM organism: Organism with altered genetic material.
• Gene therapy: Treatment of disease by gene correction.
• Bioremediation: Use of organisms to clean pollutants.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Examples (Bt cotton, insulin) ज़रूर लिखें
• Tables का प्रयोग करें
• Ethical issues short points में लिखें
• Applications concise रखें

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और biotechnology applications आधारित theory questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Biotechnology & Its Applications Printable Notes 2026

RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 13 Organisms & Populations Printable Notes 2026

यह लेख RBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter 13 Organisms & Populations Printable Notes 2026 के लिए तैयार किया गया है। यह chapter ecology, population dynamics एवं environmental factors पर आधारित है और board exams में graphs, definitions एवं short notes से जुड़े प्रश्न बहुत बार पूछे जाते हैं।

---

🔹 Introduction

Ecology जीवों और उनके environment के बीच relationships का अध्ययन है। इस chapter में organism-level adaptations, population attributes एवं population growth models शामिल हैं।

🔹 Organism & Environment

• Temperature, water, light एवं soil
• Abiotic factors जीवों के distribution को प्रभावित करते हैं
• Organisms show adaptations

🔹 Major Abiotic Factors

Factor	Effect
Temperature	Metabolic activities को प्रभावित करता है
Water	Distribution of organisms
Light	Photosynthesis पर प्रभाव
Soil	Plant growth को प्रभावित करता है

🔹 Adaptations

• Behavioural adaptations
• Morphological adaptations
• Physiological adaptations
• Examples: camel, desert plants

🔹 Population

Population एक ही species के उन individuals का समूह है जो एक निश्चित क्षेत्र में रहते हैं।

🔹 Population Attributes

• Population density
• Birth rate (natality)
• Death rate (mortality)
• Age distribution
• Sex ratio

🔹 Population Growth

• Change in population size over time
• Affected by births, deaths, immigration, emigration

🔸 Exponential Growth

• Unlimited resources
• J-shaped growth curve
• Equation: dN/dt = rN

🔸 Logistic Growth

• Limited resources
• S-shaped growth curve
• Carrying capacity (K)

🔹 Population Interactions

Interaction	Effect	Example
Predation	One benefits, other harmed	Tiger & deer
Competition	Both harmed	Plants for light
Mutualism	Both benefit	Lichen
Parasitism	One benefits, host harmed	Tapeworm

🔹 Important Definitions (2 Marks)

• Population: Group of individuals of same species.
• Carrying capacity: Maximum population size supported by environment.
• Adaptation: Adjustment of organism to environment.

🔹 Exam-Oriented Tips

• Population growth curves diagram ज़रूर बनाएं
• Interactions table में लिखें
• Definitions NCERT language में रखें
• Graphs साफ़ और labelled हों

---

👉 यह chapter-wise notes RBSE Class 12 syllabus के अनुसार हैं और ecology एवं population dynamics आधारित questions के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी हैं।

© ncertclasses.com | RBSE Class 12 Biology Organisms & Populations Printable Notes 2026